الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا

**اسامة النميرى** · 5 يول, 2014, 02:57 ص

الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا الجزء الثانى

الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا الجزء الثانى

5_ نظرية التكوين التكشفى Epigensis Theory

وطبقا لهذا الرأى تحتاج عملية تكوين الفرد الى اكثر من مجرد النمو , وان الخلايا التوالدية ما هى الا مجرد قطرات من سائل خال من المكونات لا تحتوى سوى شيئا ما يماثل الاجسام التى تنشأ منها فيمر الجسم المتكون من سلسلة من التشكيلات الاساسية تتكون من خلالها اعضاء لم يكن لها وجود من قبل حتى فى صورة اثرية
ففي عام 1759 افترض وولف Wolff تطور الجنين من كتل أولية التكوين ليس لها هيئة الكائن المكتمل وادعى وولف ان الاعضاء تنشأ نتيجة لقوة روحية غامضة
بينما صحح فون باير ادعاء وولف حيث باير اول من شاهد فعلا الخلية البيضية لاحد الثدييات ( الكلب ) كما كان اول من اعطى وصفا تفصيليا بالغ الدقة للتكوين الجنين فى الكتكوت , فالجسم منذ البداية يمتلك كيان او منظمة متقدمة التكوين , وباستمرار عمليات التكوين تدخل هذه المنظمة فى سلسلة من التغيرات المرتبة التى تؤدى على مراحل الى تكوين الجنين الكامل ثم الجسم البالغ

6_ نظرية التكوين التجميعى Provisional hypothesis of pangenesis Theory

وتسمى ايضا بنظرية التكوين الشامل Pangenesis Theory

وتسمى ايضا بوارثة الدم

وهى نظرية لداروين مفادها ان كل خلية من خلايا الجسم تنتج عناصر اولية او نسخا مصغرة لها سميت بالجميولات وهذه فى الحيوانات تلقى فى الدم وتسير مع دورته فينقلها الى الخصية او المبيض , وهناك تتجمع جميولات اجزاء الجسم المختلفة معا لتكوين الجامطيات , وعندما تعطى هذه الجامطيات افرادا جديدة فان مل نوع من الانواع المختلفة للجميولات يعطى نفس العضو والانسجة والخلايا التى نتجت منها الاباء

تبنى هذه الاراء ايضا العالم الروسى ليزنكو المسئول عن تدمير الزراعة فى الاتحاد السوفيتى

تبنى داروين هذه الخرفات متأثرا بخرافة لامارك عن وراثة الصفات المكتسبة
فما قاله داروين من وراثة الدم او التكوين الشامل يفترض فيه ان كل خلية ستعطى جميولات تسبح فى الدم حتى تصل للخصية او المبيض وبذلك فان اى صفات تكتسبها الخلايا فانها تورثها وهذه خرافة واعترض العلماء على خرفات كل من داروين ولا مارك واثبتوا ان كلام كل منهم لا يساوى حتى الحبر الذى كتب به
حيث اثبت العالم جالتون Galton 1822 – 1911 عدم صحة وراثة الدم
فقد اجرى جالتون عملية نقل دم بين ارانب بيضاء وارانب سوداء متوقعا تكوين خليط من الجميولات مما يترتب عليه جعل نسل الاباء المنقول اليها الدم مبقعا او مبرقشا ولكن لم يحدث شئ من هذا القبيل

ايضا عارض خرفات كل من داروين ولامارك العالم اوجست فايزمان الذى اوضح ان هناك فارق بين الانسجة الجسمية والنسيج الجنسى , وان الانسجة الجنسية فقط هى التى تكون جسيمات التوارث
اعترض ايضا العالم فيلبس على خرافة داروين
كذلك اعتر ض العالم جوهانسن 1911
كثيرا من العلماء اعترضوا على خرفات داروين قد نكتب موضوع مستقل عن اعتراضات العلماء بالتفاصيل على خرافة وراثة الدم لداروين

الادلة العلمية التى تثبت ضرورة حدوث اندماج بين الاسبرمات والبويضات لانتاج فرد جديد

حصل العالم الايطالى إسبالانزاني Spallanzani عام 1785 على نسل من الكلاب نتيجة التلقيح الصناعى , كما قام بترشيح السائل المنوى فى جنسين من الضفادع , واثبت ان وجود الحيونات المنوية ضرورى للاخصاب
لكن من حسم هذا الجدل كله هو العالم اوسكار هرتفينج Oscar Hertwing عام 1875 حيث اثبت ان عملية الاخصاب فى قنافذ البحر تشمل اتحاد نواة الحيوان المنوى بنواة البيضة

[IMG]https://images-blogger-opensocial.googleusercontent.com/gadgets/proxy?url=http%3A%2F%2F1.bp.blogspot.com%2F-kHvpSU8M_uE%2FU7chu2n8TtI%2FAAAAAAAAAJg%2FwsJJpP_E cQg%2Fs1600%2F%25D8%25AA%25D9%2583%25D9%2588%25D9% 258A%25D9%2586%2B%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B2%25 D9%258A%25D8%25AC%25D9%2588%25D8%25AA.jpg&containe r=blogger&gadget=a&rewriteMime=image%2F*[/IMG]

مواقع وكتب للاستزادة

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/...rmation-theory

http://www.christianhubert.com/writi...formation.html

https://www.google.com.eg/url?sa=t&r...-uwVSsUtMcqH2Q

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epigenesis/

http://10e.devbio.com/

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/bi...n-theories.php

http://morphologicaldesign.blogspot.com/

http://10e.devbio.com/article.php?id=66

المراجع

Getting Funding for Research in Developmental Biology at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions
(pdf file) of pamphlet passed out at 62nd Annual SDB Meeting, July 30 - August 3, 2003, Boston, MA.
PNAS Classics of the Scientific Literature celebrating landmark papers published in PNAS, especially Briggs & King: Nuclear Transfer.
Cell Biology Education is an online, quarterly journal owned and published by The American Society for Cell Biology.
"Teaching Evolution through Development" Scott Gilbert's Lecture given at the 2002 SDB Annual Meeting, Madison, WI. The text and Powerpoint presentation are available for download.
For graduate developmental biology programs, please go to the Departments and Institutes section of the Virtual Library-Developmental Biology that the SDB maintains.
Kathy Tosney's tutorial: How to create a poster that graphically communicates your message.
Educational Programs at the Marine Biological Laboratory
Embryo Images-Normal and Abnormal Mammalian Development is an excellent tutorial that uses scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) as the primary resource to teach mammalian embryology. Kathleen Sulik and Peter Bream at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill built this tutorial.
Tom Brody's The Interactive Fly--A cyberspace guide to Drosophila genes and their roles in development.
C. elegans Movies A visual introduction to C. elegans and its development. This page has links to timelapse movies made by C. elegans researchers worldwide. For more information about worms, see the C. elegans web page. Contents include: Embryos; RNAi Screens; Larvae and Adults; Techniques
Leon Browder's Virtual Embryo--The site that keeps on developing.
The Biology Project, developed at The University of Arizona, has a Developmental Mechanisms problem set designed to introduce students to the basic concepts of development in a variety of organisms.
Stephen Devoto's Biology 321, Cells in Development, focuses on the molecular basis of cell behaviors, and how cellular behaviors lead to the generation of tissue and animal forms during development.
John Doctor's Multi-Week Labs for Students to Examine the Expression of a Smooth Muscle-Specific Protein in Chick Embryos.
Scott Gilbert's Developmental Biology Course is arranged to take advantage of his book, CD, and his book's website; the course is designed predominantly for sophomores and juniors.
Scott Gilbert's undergraduate Evo-Devo Seminar. This seminar attempts to get students involved in evolutionary developmental biology.
Jeff Hardin's Amphibian Embryology Tutorial A tutorial to supplement in-class instruction and textbook resources.
Brad Stith's Web site has animations of hormone signaling in Xenopus oocytes, and fertilization. Time Lapse video is shown for gravitational rotation, surface contraction waves (due to intracellular [calcium] wave) and cleavage are shown. Course packets for Cell Biology, Cell Signaling, Developmental Biology and Advanced Cell Biology are noted. A THE Journal on the use of the web in teaching, and a discussion on obtaining grant funding at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions is present.
Judy Heady's Web site on early embryology and science education.
Mark Hill's Embryology Resource of concepts in embryological development that covers early development, systematic development, developmental abnormalites and molecular mechanisms. Resources include Carnegie stage 13/14 and stage 22 embryos cut in serial section, the human Carnegie stages, brief introductory descriptions, OMIM database refs and links to related www resources.
Laurie Iten's Serially Sectioned Frog and Chick Embryos
KlausKalthoff's Developmental Biology Class Web Site
David Knecht's Dictyostelium Movies
Jacqueline McLaughlin's and Elizabeth McCain's, Developmental and Physiological Aspects of the Chicken Embryonic Heart
Randy Moon's animated display of Wnt-1 Signal Transduction Pathway
Morphing Human, Pig, Chicken, and Fish Embryos, from Odyssey of Life, Nova Online
Developmental Biology Online--Steve Scadding's supplemental materials for his Developmental Biology class at the University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. This site has: labelled cross sections of frog and chick embryos; an introduction to histology; plus information on gametogenesis and regeneration.
Sea Urchin Embryology. This site presents a set of laboratory modules that use sea urchins to demonstrate fertilization and early development. Developed for use in courses for high school, junior college, or lower division college biology labs, the site presents comprehensive resources including lab exercises, overheads and handouts, and extra information for the instructor.
Mary Tyler's Developmental Biology web site that's devoted to education in developmental biology. It augments her and Ron Kozlowski's Vade Mecum CD and Tyler laboratory manual and includes among other things videos, a searchable glossary, recipes, staging series, interactive puzzles, a history section, and updated news pages.
Educational Items in Genetics, from the Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology.
Microbiology Education Journal is a peer-reviewed online publication of the American Society for Microbiology.
Oral Developmental Genetics site reviews the development of embryonic salivary gland development of mammals, and describes nonlinear modeling of embryonic organs based on functional genomics and bioinformatics.
BioMarCell, a site about reproduction , fertilization and development of sea urchins, ascidians, cnidarians, ctenophores, and chaetognaths.
BioClips, a site with many films and animations of cells, tissues, and embryos.
Resources for K-12 Teachers
Developmental Biology Resources for Pre-College Teachers
Aristotle, 1979, Generation of Animals, translated by A. L. Peck, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bowler, Peter 1971, “Preformation and Pre-existence in the Seventeenth Century: A Brief Analysis,” Journal of the History of Biology, 43: 221-244.
Bowler, P., 1975, “The Changing Meaning of ‘Evolution,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 36: 95-114.
Briggs Robert and T.J. King, 1952, “Transplantation of Living Nuclei from Blastula Cells into Enucleated Frog's Eggs,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 38: 455-463.
Churchill, Frederick B., 1966, Wilhelm Roux and a program for embryology, Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Churchill, Frederick B., 1973, “Chabry, Roux, and the experimental method in nineteenth century embryology,” in: R. Giere and R. S. Westfall, editors, Foundations of the Scientific Method: the Nineteenth Century, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 161-205.
Darwin, Charles, 1859, On the Origin of Species, any first edition, Chapter 13.
Driesch, Hans, 1892, “Entwicklungsmechanische Studien I. Der Werth der beiden ersten Furchungszellen in der Echinodermentwicklung. Experimentelle Erzeugen von Theil- und Doppelbildung,” Zeitschrift für wissenschafliche Zoologie, 53: 160-178. Translated in Willier and Oppenheimer, pp. 38-50.
Farley, John, 1977, The Spontaneous Generation Controversy From Descartes to Oparin, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Fry, Iris, 2000, The Emergence of Life on Earth. A Historical and Scientific Overview, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Gearhart, J.D., 1998, “New Potential for Human Embryonic Germ Cells,” Science, 282: 1061-1062.
Gurdon J.B. and Alan Colman, 1999, “The Future of Cloning,” Nature, 402: 743-746.
Haeckel, Ernst, 1867, Generelle Morphologie der Organsimen, Berlin: George Reimer.
Hertwig, Oscar, 1900, The Biological Problem of Today, translated by P. Chalmers Mitchell, Oceanside, New Jersey: Dabor Scientific Publications, 1977; original translation 1900). Originally: Zeit- und Streitfragen der Biologie. Vol 1. Prنformation oder Epigenese? Grundzüge einer Entwicklungstheorie der Organismen (Jena: Gustav Fisher, 1894). Volume 2 responded to Roux: Mechanik und Biologie Kritische Bemerkungen zu den entwickelungsmechanischen Naturgesetz von Roux.
Judson, Horace Freeland, 1979, The Eighth Day of Creation, New York: Simon and Schuster.
Lennox, James, ed, 2001, Aristotle: on the Parts of Animals I-IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Maienschein, Jane, 1991, “T.H. Morgan's Regeneration, Epigenesis, and (W)holism,” in Charles Dinsmore, editor, History of Regeneration Research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 133-149.
Maienschein, Jane, 2000, “Competing Epistemologies and Developmental Biology,” in Richard Creath and Jane Maienschein, editors, Biology and Epistemology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maienschein, Jane, 2003, Whose View of Life. Embryos, Cloning, and Stem Cells, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McLaren, Anne, 2000, “Cloning: Pathways to a Pluripotent Future,” Science, 288: 1775-1780.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 1901, “Regeneration in the Egg, Embryo, and Adult,” American Naturalist, 35: 949-973.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, letter to his friend Ross Harrison in 1908 that embryology was his field, Harrison Papers, Yale University Archives.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 1910a, “Chromosomes and Heredity,” American Naturalist, 64: 449-496.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 1910b, “Sex Limited Inheritance in Drosophila,” Science, 32: 120-122.
Olby, Robert, 1974, The Path to the Double Helix: The Discovery of DNA, Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Oppenheimer, Jane M., 1967, Essays in the History of Embryology and Biology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Oyama, Susan, 2000, The Ontogeny of Information: Developmental Systems and Evoluiton, Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2nd edition.
Pinto-Correia, Clara, 1997, The Ovary of Eve: Egg and Sperm and Preformation, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Robert, Jason Scott, 2004, Embryology, Epigenesis, and Evolution: Taking Development Seriously, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Roe, Shirley, 1981, Matter, Life, and Generation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roux, Wilhelm, 1888, “Beitrنge zur Entwickelungsmechanik des Embryo. ـber die künstliche Hervorbringung halber Embryonen durch Zerstِrung einer der beiden ersten Furchungskugeln, sowie über die Nachentwickelung (Postgeneration) der fehlenden Kِrperhنlfte,” Virchows Archiv, 114: 113-153. Translated in Benjamin William and Jane M. Oppenheimer, editors, Foundations of Experimental Embryology (New York: Hafner, 1964), pp. 2-37.
Shamblott, M.J., et al., 1998, “Derivation of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Cultured Human Primordia Germ Cells,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95: 13726-13731.
Thomson, James, et al., 1998, “Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human Blastocysts,” Science, 282: 1145-1147.
Waddington, C.H., 1942, "The epigenotype" Endeavour, 1: 18–20.
Weismann, August, 1893, The Germ Plasm, translated by W. Newton Parker and Harriet Rِnnfeldt, New York: Charles Scribners.
Wheeler, William Morton, 1899, “Caspar Friedrich Wolff and the Theoria Generationis,” Biological Lectures of the Marine Biological Laboratory, 1898: 265-284.
Wilmut, I, K. Campbell, and C. Tudge, 2000, The Second Creation: The Age of Biological Control by the Scientists Who Cloned Dolly, London: Headline Press.
Vinci, Tom and Jason Scott Robert, 2005, “Aristotle and Modern Genetics,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 66: 201-221
Jump up ^ Maienschein, Jane, "Epigenesis and Preformationism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
Jump up ^ According to the Oxford English Dictionary:
The word is used by W. Harvey, Exercitationes 1651, p. 148, and in the English Anatomical Exercitations 1653, p. 272. It is explained to mean ‘partium super-exorientium additamentum’, ‘the additament of parts budding one out of another’.
It is also worth quoting this adumbration of the definition given there (viz., "The formation of an organic germ as a new product"):
theory of epigenesis: the theory that the germ is brought into existence (by successive accretions), and not merely developed, in the process of reproduction. [...] The opposite theory was formerly known as the ‘theory of evolution’; to avoid the ambiguity of this name, it is now spoken of chiefly as the ‘theory of preformation’, sometimes as that of ‘encasement’ or ‘emboîtement’.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Magner, Lois. A History of the Life Sciences. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc, 2002
Jump up ^ e.g. by Ian Johnston, Malaspina University-College, Nanaimo, BC, in "...And Still We Evolve: A Handbook on the History of Modern Science", Section Five: Heredity and Modern Genetics, May 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b c Clara Pinto Correia, The Ovary of Eve: Egg and Sperm Preformation, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. ISBN 0-226-66952-1
Jump up ^ Gould, S. J. (1974) "On Heroes and Fools in Science." Natural History 83 (7): 30-32.
^ Jump up to: a b Friedman, David M. A Mind of Its Own: A Cultural History of the Penis. New York: The Free Press, 2001
Jump up ^ Nicolas Malebranche, De la recherche de la vérité (The Search After Truth), book I, chapter VI, first section (1674-1675)
Jump up ^ Smith, Justin Erik. “Leibniz’s Preformationism: Between Metaphysics and Biology.”Analecta Husserliana, the Yearbook of Phenomenological Research. Volume LXXVII. (2002) 161-192.
Jump up ^ Gee, Henry. Jacob's Ladder: The History of the Human Genome. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 2004

Balme, D. M. (1991). Aristotle. History of Animals, Books VII-X, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
––– (1992). Aristotle. De Partibus Animalium I and De Generatione Animalium I (with passages from II. 1–3) With a Report on Recent Work and an Additional Bibliography by A. Gotthelf, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
––– (2002). Aristotle: Historia Animalium, Volume I, Books I-X Text (Prepared for Publication by A. Gotthelf). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Drossaart Lulofs, H. J. (1965). Aristotelis De Generatione Animalium, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Düring, I. (1943/1980 repr.), Aristotle's De Partibus Animalium: Critical and Literary Commentaries, New York: Garland Publishing.
Kullmann, W. (2007). Aristoteles: ـber die Teile der Lebewesen, Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
Lanza, D., Vegetti, M. (1971). Aristotele, Opere Biologiche, Torino: UTET.
Le Blond, J. M. (1945). Aristote, philosophe de la vie: Le livre premier du traité sur les Parties des Animaux. Paris: Aubier.
Lennox, J. G. (2001a). Aristotle: On the Parts of Animals, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Louis, P. (1956). Les parties des animaux, Paris: Budé.
–––. (1961). De la génération des animaux, Paris: Budé.
Ogle, W. (1882/1987). Aristotle on the Parts of Animals. New York: Garland.
Peck. A. L. (1961). Aristotle: Parts of Animals (introduction, text, translation). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
––– (1963). Aristotle: Generation of Animals (introduction, text, translation). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
––– (1965). Aristotle: Historia Animalium, Books I-III (introduction, text, translation), Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
––– (1970). Aristotle: Historia Animalium, Books IV-VI (introduction, text, translation), Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Ross, W. D. (1949). Aristotle's Prior and Posterior Analytics: A Revised Text with Introduction and Commentary, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
Whitteridge, G. (1981). William Harvey: Disputations touching The Generation of Animals, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
· Anagnostopoulos, G. (ed.) (2009). A Companion to Aristotle, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
· Balme, D. M. (1961). “Aristotle's Use of Differentiae in Zoology,” in S. Mansion (ed.),Aristote e les problèmes de méthode, Louvain: Publications Universitaires de Louvain, pp. 195–212.
· ––– (1987a). “The Place of Biology in Aristotle's Philosophy,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 9–20.
· ––– (1987b). “Aristotle's Use of Division and Differentiae,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 69–89.
· ––– (1987c). “Aristotle's biology was not essentialist,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 291–312.
· ––– (1990). “Matter in definition: a reply to G. E. R. Lloyd,” in Devereux & Pellegrin 1990, pp. 49–54.
· Bolton, R. (1987). “Definition and Scientific Method in Aristotle's Posterior Analytics andGeneration of Animals,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 120–66.
· ––– (2010). “Biology and metaphysics in Aristotle”, in Lennox and Bolton, pp. 30–55.
· Bowen, A. (ed.) (1991). Science and Philosophy in Classical Greece, New York: Garland Press.
· Charles, D. (1988). “Aristotle on Hypothetical Necessity and Irreducibility,” Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, 69: 1–45.
· ––– (1990). “Meaning, natural kinds and natural history,” in Devereux & Pellegrin 1990, pp. 145–67.
· ––– (2000). Aristotle on Meaning and Essence, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
· ––– (ed.) (2010). Definition in Greek Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
· Code, A. (1986). “Soul as Efficient Cause in Aristotle's Embryology,” Philosophical Topics, 15: 51–60.
· Cooper, J. M. (1988). “Metaphysics in Aristotle's Embryology,” Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, 214: 14–41.
· Depew, D. (2008). “Consequence Etiology and Biological Teleology in Aristotle and Darwin,” Studies in the History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 39: 379–390.
· Detel, W. (1999). “Aristotle on Zoological Explanation,” Philosophical Topics, 25: 43–68.
· Devereux, D. & Pellegrin, P. (Eds.) (1990). Biologie, Logique et Métaphysique chez Aristote, Paris: ةditions du CNRS.
· Fِllinger. S. (ed.) (2010). Was ist ‘Leben’? Aristoteles' Anschauungen zur Entstehung und Funktionsweise von Leben, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
· Fortenbaugh, W. W., & Sharples, R. W. (Eds.) (1988). Theophrastean Studies, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
· Gill, M. L. (1989). “Aristotle on Matters of Life and Death,” Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, 4: 187–205.
· ––– (1997). “Material Necessity and Meteorology IV 12,” in Kullmann and Fِllinger 1997, pp. 145–162.
· Gotthelf, A. (ed.) (1985a). Aristotle on Nature and Living Things: philosophical and historical studies presented to David M. Balme on his seventieth birthday, Pittsburgh: Mathesis.
· ––– (1985b). “Notes towards a study of substance and essence in Aristotle's Parts of Animals II-IV,” in Gotthelf 1985a, pp. 27-54.
· ––– (1987a). “First principles in Aristotle's Parts of Animals,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 167–98.
· ––– (1987b). “Aristotle's Conception of Final Causality,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 204–242.
· ––– (1988). “Historiae I: Plantarum e Animalium,” in Fortenbaugh & Sharples 1988, pp. 100–135.
· ––– (1997a). “The elephant's nose: further reflections on the axiomatic structure of biological explanation in Aristotle,” in Kullmann & Fِllinger 1997, pp. 85–96.
· ––– (1997b). “Division and Explanation in Aristotle's Parts of Animals,” in Günther & Rengakos 1997, pp. 215–230.
· Gotthelf, A. & Lennox, J. G. (Eds.) (1987). Philosophical Issues in Aristotle's Biology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
· Günther, H.-C. & Rengakos, A. (Eds.) (1997). Beitrنge zur antiken Philosophie: Festschrift für Wolfgang Kullmann, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
· Henry, D. (2003). “Themistius and Spontaneous Generation in Aristotle's Metaphysics,”Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 24: 183–208.
· ––– (2006a). “Understanding Aristotle's Reproductive Hylomorphism,” Apeiron: A Journal of Ancient Philosophy and Science, 39: 269–300.
· ––– (2006b). “Aristotle on the Mechanisms of Inheritance,” Journal of the History of Biology, 39: 425–455.
· ––– (2008). “Organismal Natures,” Apeiron: a journal for ancient philosophy and science, 41: 47–74.
· Johnson, M. (2005). Aristotle on Teleology, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
· Kullmann, W. (1974). Wissenschaft und Methode, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
· Kullmann, W. and Fِllinger, S. (Eds.) (1997). Aristotelische Biologie, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
· Lennox, J. (1990). “Notes on David Charles on HA,” in Devereux & Pellegrin 1990, pp. 169–83.
· ––– (2001b). Aristotle's Philosophy of Biology: Studies in the Origins of Life Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
· ––– (2001c). “Aristotle on the Unity and Disunity of Science,” International Studies in Philosophy of Science, 15 (2): 133–144.
· ––– (2005). “Getting a Science Going: Aristotle on Entry Level Kinds,” in Wolters & Carrier 2005, pp. 87–100.
· ––– (2009). “Form, Essence, and Explanation in Aristotle's Biology,” in Anagnostopoulos 2009, pp.348–367.
· ––– (2010a). “Bios and Explanatory Unity in Aristotle's Biology,” in Charles 2010, pp.329–355.
· ––– (2010b). “The unity and purpose of On the Parts of Animals I,” in Lennox and Bolton 2010, pp. 56–77.
· ––– (2011). “Aristotle on Norms of Inquiry,” HOPOS: The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science, 1: 23–46.
· Lennox, J. and Bolton, R. (Eds.) (2010). Being, Nature, and Life in Aristotle, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
· Lesher, J. (ed.) (2010). From Inquiry to Demonstrative Knowledge: New Essays on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, Kelowna BC: Academic Printing and Publishing.
· Leunissen, M. (2010a). Explanation and Teleology in Aristotle's Science of Nature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
· ––– (2010b). “Aristotle's Syllogistic Model of Knowledge and the Biological Sciences: Demonstrating Natural Processes,” in Lesher 2010, pp. 31–60.
· Leunissen, M. and Gotthelf, A. (2010). “What's Teleology Got to Do with It: A Reinterpretation of Aristotle's Generation of Animals V,” Phronesis: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy 55: 325–356.
· Lloyd, G. E. R. (1987). “Empirical research in Aristotle's biology,” in Gotthelf & Lennox 1987, pp. 53–64.
· ––– (1990). “Aristotle's zoology and his metaphysics. The status quaestionis. A critical review of some recent theories,” in Devereux & Pellegrin 1990, pp. 7–36.
· ––– (1996). Aristotelian Explorations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
· Marcos, A. (1996). Aristَteles y Otros Animales, Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias.
· Mayhew, R. (2004). The Female in Aristotle's Biology, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
· Owen, R. (1992). The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy (May and June 1837), Phillip Reid Sloan (ed.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
· Pellegrin, P. (1986). Aristotle's Classification of Animals: Biology and the Conceptual Unity of the Aristotelian Corpus, trans. by Anthony Preus, Berkeley: University of California Press.
· Quarantotto, D. (2005). Causa Finale, Sostanza, Essenza in Aristotele, Napoli: Bibliopolis.
· Stavrianeas, S. (2009). “Spontaneous Generation in Aristotle's Biology,” Rhizai: A Journal of Ancient Philosophy and Science, 5: 303–338.
· Wolters, G. & Carrier, M. (Eds.) (2005). Homo Sapiens und Homo Faber: epistemische und technische Rationalitنt in Antike und Gegenwart, Festschrift für Jürgen Mittelstrass, Berlin: De Gruyter.

The Developing Human, Keith L. Moore, Fourth ed.,1988, Saunders Comp., Toronto, P: 7-11, 14.
Obstetrics and Gynaecology for Postgraduates, Charles Whitfield, 5th ed., 1995.
Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Tim Chard, 4th ed., 1995.
Medical Embryology, Jan Langman, 4th ed., 1981.
Human Male Fertility and Semen Analysis, Glover, Barratt, Tyler, Hennessey, 1990.

Barth, Lester George (1953) "Embryology". The Dryen Press publications in the biological sciences. Rev. and enl. ed. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, NY.
Bilsky, Emily D., Idel, Moshe & Ledig, Elfriede (1988) "Golem! Danger, deliverance and art". Jewish Museum, New York, NY.
Brendel, Zacharias (1671) "Zachariae Brendelli Chimia in artis formam redacta...; disquisitio curata de famosissima praeparatione, auri potabilis instituitur...", p. 419-438. Lugduni Batavorum: Ex officina Arnoldi Doude.
Buber, Martin (1991) "Tales of the Hasidim". Schocken Books, New York, NY.
Bynum, William F.; Browne, E. Janet & Porter, Roy (1984) "Dictionary of the history of science", p. 331. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Carlson, Bruce M. (1981) "Patten's foundations of embryology", p. 2. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY.
Castelli, Bartholomaei (1713) "Lexicom medicum graeco-latinum", p. 662-663. Lipsiae, apud. Thoman Fritsch. Cattaui, Georges; Hutin, Serge & Whitheside, Béatrice (1966) "Paracelse, l'homme, le médecin, l'alchimiste", p. 56. ةditions de la Table Ronde, Paris, France.
Cole, F.J. (1930) "Early theories of sexual reproduction". Claredon Press, Oxford, UK.
Collins, Harry & Pinch, Trevor (1993) "The Golem— What everybody should know about science". Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Dennett, Daniel Clament (1991), "Consciousness explained". Little Brown & Co., Boston, MA.
Edwards, John (1696) "A demonstration of the existence and providence of God, from the contemplation of the visible structure of the greater and lesser world, in two parts, the first, shewing the Excellent Contrivance of the Heavens, Earth, Sea, etc; the second, the Wonderful Formation of the Body of Man", p. vii, 110-113, 122-124. Printed by J. D. for Jonathan Robinson at the Golden Lion, and John Wyat at the Rofe in St. Paul's Church-Yard, London, UK.
Elsholtz, Johann Sigismund (1677) "The curious distillatory, or, The art of ditilling coloured liquors, spirits, oyls, etc, from vegitables, animals, minerals and metals... containing many experiments... relating to the production of colours, consistence and heat...: together with several experiments upon the blood (and its serum) of diseased persons, with divers other collateral experiments", vol VII, p. 197. Printed by J. D. for Robert Boulter, London, UK. Farley, John (1982) "Gametes and spores— Ideas about sexual reproduction, 1750-1914", p. 20. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
Fodor, Jerry A. (1981) "Representations: philosophical essays on the foundations of cognitive science". Massachussets Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, MA.
Gilbert, Scott F. (1995) "Developmental Biology", 4th ed., p. 122. Sinauer Press, Sunderland, MA.
Hill, John (1885) "Lucina sine concubitu: a letter humbly addressed to the Royal Society, in which it is proved, by most incontestable evidence, drawn from reason and practise, that a woman may conceive and be brought to bed, without any commerce with man", p. 12. Collectanea adamantea; VII, Edinburgh, UK.
Hutin, Serge (1966) "Henry More— éssai sur les doctrines théosophiques chez les Platoniciens de Cambridge". Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung Hildesheim, Germany.
Huxley, Julian S. & de Beer, G.R. (1963) "The elements of experimental embryology", p. 2. Cambridge University Press, London, UK.
Idel, Moshe (1992) "Le Golem". Cerf, Paris, France.
Jâbir Ibn Hayân (1983) "Dix traités d'alchimie", trans. and pres. by Pierre Lory. La Bibliotéque de l'Islam, Paris, France.
Kircher, Athanasius (1678) "Athanasii Kircheri & Soc. Jesu mundus subterraneus, in XII libros digestus". Joannem Janssonium a Waesberge & fillios, Amsterdam, Holland.
Kraus, Paul (1943) "Contribuition à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam", vol. 1. Imprimerie de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, Cairo, Egypt.
Leeuwenhoek, Antonii (1719) "Epistolae ad Societatem Regiam Anglicam, et alios illuistres viros seu Continuatio mirandorum Arcanorum Naturae detectorum", quadraginta Epistolis contentorum, p. 65, 66, 68, 283, 285, 287. Lugduni Batavorum Apud. Joh. Arnold. Langerak.
Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van (1952) "The Collected letters of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek", ed. ,ill. and annotated by a Comittee of Dutch scientists. Swets & Zeitlinger, Ltd, Amsterdam, Holland.
Locy, William Albert (1925) "The story of biology". Garden City Publishing Company, inc, Garden City, NY.
Mackinnon, Flora Isabel (1969) "Philosophical Writtings of Henry More". AMC Press, New York, NY.
Maxwell, William (1855) "Drei Bucher der magnetischen Heilkunde; worin sowohl die Teorie als Praxis dieser Wissencschaft enthalten ist, viele geheime Naturwunder geoffenbart, die bisher unbekannten Wirkumgen des Lebensgeistes enthullt und die Fundamente dieser ganzen verborgenen Kunst mit der starksten, auf Erfahrung gestutzten Beweingrunden dargestellt werden". Kleiner Wunder-Schauplatz, Th. 3, Stuttgart, Scheible.
Minsky, Marvin Lee (1967) "Computation: finite and infinite machines". Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Moore, Henry (1966) "Enthusiasmus Triumphatus", p. 32-33. The Augustan Reprint Society 118, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California, LA, CA.
Needham, Joseph (1934) "A history of embryology", p. 164. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Needham, T. J. (1749) "Observations on the generation, composition and decomposition, of animal and vegetable substances". London, UK (summary in Phil. Trans. vol. XLV, p. 615, 1750).
Nordenskiold, Erik (1928) "The history of biology; a survey", Tudor Publishing Co, New York, NY.
Oppenheimer, Steven B. & Lefevre Jr., George (1984) "Introduction to embryonic development", p. 2-3. Albyn and Bacon, inc., Boston, MA.
Porta, Giambattista della (1957) "Natural Magik", p. 37. The Collector's series in science, Basic Books, New York, NY.
Redi, Francesco (1909) "Experiments on the generation of insects", translated from the italian edition by Mab Bigelow, p. 36. The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, IL.
Richards, Aute (1931) "Outline of comparative embryology". J. Willey & sons, inc, New York, NY.
Russell, E. S. (1930) "The interpretation of development and heredity— a study in biological method", p. 29-30. Claredon Press, Oxford, UK.
Schurigio, Martino (1720) "Spermatologia historico-medica, h. e. Seminis Humani Consideratio, Physico-Mecido-Legalis, qua Ejus natura et. usus, infilmulque Opus generationes et varia de coitu aliaque huc pertinentia, v. g. De Castratione Herniotomia, Phimiosi, Circumcisione, Rectutitione, & Infibulatione, item De Hermaphroditis & sexum mutatibus, raris & selectis Observationibus, annexo Indice lucupletissimo", p. 330-331. Johannis Beckii, Francofurti ad Moenum.
Scholem, Gershom (1941) "Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism". Schocken Books, New York,NY.
Sherwin, Byron L. (1985) "The golem legend— origins and implications". University Press of America, New York, NY.
Sterne, Lawrence (1899) "The life and opinions of Tristam Shandy, gentleman". The Temple Classics, J. M. Dent., London, UK.
Thorndike, Lynn (1929) "A history of magic and experimental science", 2nd ed. with corrections. The Macmillan Co, New York, NY.
Waddington, C. H. (1956) "Principles of embryology". George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Bristol, UK.
Waite, Arthur Edward (1976) "The hermetical and alchemical writings of Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombast, of Hohenheim, called Paracelsus the Great, now for the first time faithfully translated into English", vol I, Hermetic chemistry, p. 124, 125. Shambala, Berkeley, CA.
Wells, Herbert George (1934) "Patterns of life", Science of Life Series, v. 2. Cassel, London, UK.

**يوسف المصري** · 5 يول, 2014, 03:35 ص

رد: الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا الجزء الثانى

المراجع اكتر من الموضوع يا اخي الحبيب
هلا اختصرت لنا اسماء الكتب بارك الله فيك
و جزاك الله عنا خير الجزاء

**اسامة النميرى** · 5 يول, 2014, 08:28 م

رد: الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا الجزء الثانى

المشاركة الأصلية بواسطة يوسف المصري

المراجع اكتر من الموضوع يا اخي الحبيب
هلا اختصرت لنا اسماء الكتب بارك الله فيك
و جزاك الله عنا خير الجزاء

فعلا عزيزى مواضيعى عدد المراجع فيها بيكون كبير شوية
وانا بتعمد اعمل كدة عشان افيد المتخصصين
عشان اللى يجيى يكتب مقالة بعد منى فى نفس الصدد يبقى مرتاح
عموما فى موضوع بيولوجى هكتبة قريب هيكون عدد مراجعه 1000 مرجع
المهم عزيز ى لم افهم ماذا تريد
هل تريد مراجع عربى
؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟

**محب المصطفى** · 6 يول, 2014, 07:28 م

رد: الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا

ربما يكون المقصد من المراجع هو مراجع الطرح نفسه حين كتابته لا كونها متعلقه بالموضوع وحسب فتلك تكون عادة
تحت بند للاستزادة او نحو ذلك في آخر المستند او الكتاب فضلا عن ان يكون موضوع عادي في منتدى مثل هنا او شيء

وكلاكما أهل فضل وعلم ان شاء الله ..

المواضيع	إحصائيات	آخر مشاركة
بَشَرَانِيَّةُ أُلدُوفاي رقم 86 ضربة لسلسلة التطور البشري بواسطة أحمد الشامي1 ابتدأ بواسطة أحمد الشامي1, منذ أسبوع واحد	ردود 0 97 مشاهدات 0 ردود الفعل	آخر مشاركة بواسطة أحمد الشامي1 منذ أسبوع واحد
الإلحاد والاستقراء التام- د/ منى زيتون بواسطة الراجى رضا الله ابتدأ بواسطة الراجى رضا الله, منذ أسبوع واحد	ردود 0 13 مشاهدات 0 ردود الفعل	آخر مشاركة بواسطة الراجى رضا الله منذ أسبوع واحد
إعادة توجية: الإلحاد والاستقراء التام- د/ منى زيتون بواسطة الراجى رضا الله ابتدأ بواسطة الراجى رضا الله, منذ أسبوع واحد	—	—
مجادلة وتشغيب #نقد_الإلحاد من خلق الله ؟! محمد الغزالي بواسطة Mohamed Karm ابتدأ بواسطة Mohamed Karm, منذ 2 أسابيع	رد 1 18 مشاهدات 0 ردود الفعل	آخر مشاركة بواسطة Mohamed Karm منذ 2 أسابيع
جين Gulo ولغز فيتامين C - د/منى زيتون بواسطة الراجى رضا الله ابتدأ بواسطة الراجى رضا الله, منذ 4 أسابيع	ردود 0 66 مشاهدات 0 ردود الفعل	آخر مشاركة بواسطة الراجى رضا الله منذ 4 أسابيع

الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا

عن الكاتب

الاسلام يسبق العلم ب 13 قرن بيولوجيا

تعليق

تعليق

تعليق

تعليق

مواضيع ذات صلة